Nanoscale nickel-based catalytic material

ABSTRACT

The performance of an AB x  type metal hydride alloy is improved by adding an element to the alloy which element is operative to enhance the surface area morphology of the alloy. The alloy may include surface regions of differing morphologies.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to alloy materials and methods for theirfabrication. In particular, the invention relates to nanoscale andsub-nanoscale nickel-based catalysts derived from metal hydride alloymaterials, and to structures including these catalysts.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

As is known in the art, certain metal hydride alloy materials arecapable of absorbing and desorbing hydrogen. These materials can be usedas hydrogen storage media and/or as electrode materials for fuel cells,and metal hydride batteries including metal hydride/air battery systems.

When an electrical potential is applied between the cathode and a metalhydride anode in a metal hydride cell, the negative electrode material(M) is charged by the electrochemical absorption of hydrogen and theelectrochemical evolution of a hydroxyl ion; upon discharge, the storedhydrogen is released to form a water molecule and evolve an electron.The reactions that take place at the positive electrode of a nickelmetal hydride cell are also reversible. Most metal hydride cells use anickel hydroxide positive electrode. The following charge and dischargereactions take place at a nickel hydroxide positive electrode.

In a metal hydride cell having a nickel hydroxide positive electrode anda hydrogen storage negative electrode, the electrodes are typicallyseparated by a non-woven, felted, nylon or polypropylene separator. Theelectrolyte is usually an alkaline aqueous electrolyte, for example, 20to 45 weight percent potassium hydroxide.

One particular group of metal hydride materials having utility in metalhydride battery systems is known as the AB_(x) class of material withreference to the crystalline sites that its member component elementsoccupy. AB_(x) type materials are disclosed, for example, in U.S. Pat.No. 5,536,591 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,210,498, the disclosures of which areincorporated herein by reference. Such materials may include, but arenot limited to, modified LaNi₅ type as well as the TiVZrNi type activematerials. These materials reversibly form hydrides in order to storehydrogen. Such materials utilize a generic Ti—V—Ni composition, where atleast Ti, V, and Ni are present with at least one or more of Cr, Zr, andAl. The materials are multiphase materials, which may contain, but arenot limited to, one or more TiVZrNi type phases with a C₁₄ and C₁₅ typecrystal structure. Some specific formulations comprise:(TiV_(2-x)Ni_(x))_(1-y)M_(y)where x is between 0.2 and 1.0; y is between 0.0 and 0.2; and M=Al orZr;Ti_(2-x)Zr_(x)V_(4-y)Ni_(y)where Zr is partially substituted for Ti; x is between 0.0 and 1.5; andy is between 0.6 and 3.5; andTi_(1-x)Cr_(x)V_(2-y)Ni_(y)where Cr is partially substituted for Ti; x is between 0.0 and 0.75; andy is between 0.2 and 1.0.

Other Ti—V—Zr—Ni alloys may also be used for a rechargeable hydrogenstorage negative electrode. One such family of materials is a specificsub-class of these Ti—V—Ni—Zr alloys comprising Ti, V, Zr, Ni, and afifth component, Cr. In a particular instance, the alloy has thecomposition(Ti_(2-x)Zr_(x)V_(4-y)Ni_(y))_(1-z)Cr_(z)where x is from 0.00 to 1.5, y is from 0.6 to 3.5, and z is an effectiveamount less than 0.20. These alloys may be viewed stoichiometrically ascomprising 80 atomic percent of a V—Ti—Zr—Ni moiety and up to 20 atomicpercent Cr, where the ratio of (Ti+Zr+Cr+optional modifiers) to(Ni+V+optional modifiers) is between 0.40 to 0.67. These alloys mayinclude additives and modifiers beyond the Ti, V, Zr, Ni, and Crcomponents.

The V—Ti—Zr—Ni family of alloys has an inherently higher discharge ratecapability than previously described alloys. This is the result ofsubstantially higher surface areas at the metal/electrolyte interfacefor electrodes made from the V—Ti—Zr—Ni materials. The surface roughnessfactor (total surface area divided by geometric surface area) ofV—Ti—Zr—Ni alloys is about 10,000. This value indicates a very highsurface area and is supported by the inherently high rate capability ofthese materials. The characteristic surface roughness of themetal/electrolyte interface is a result of the disordered nature of thematerial. Since all of the constituent elements, as well as many alloysand phases of them, are present throughout the metal, they are alsorepresented at the surfaces and at cracks which form in themetal/electrolyte interface. Thus, the characteristic surface roughnessis descriptive of the interaction of the physical and chemicalproperties of the host metals as well as of the alloys andcrystallographic phases of the alloys in an alkaline environment. Thesemicroscopic chemical, physical, and crystallographic parameters of theindividual phases within the hydrogen storage alloy material arebelieved to be important in determining its macroscopic electrochemicalcharacteristics.

In addition to the physical nature of its roughened surface, it has beenobserved that V—Ti—Zr—Ni alloys tend to reach a steady state surfacecomposition and particle size. This steady state surface composition ischaracterized by a relatively high concentration of metallic nickel.These observations are consistent with a relatively high rate of removalthrough precipitation of the oxides of titanium and zirconium from thesurface and a much lower rate of nickel solubilization, providing adegree of porosity to the surface. The resultant surface seems to have ahigher concentration of nickel than would be expected from the bulkcomposition of the negative hydrogen storage electrode. Nickel in themetallic state is electrically conductive and catalytic, imparting theseproperties to the surface. As a result, the surface of the negativehydrogen storage electrode is more catalytic and conductive than if thesurface contained a higher concentration of insulating oxides.

In contrast to the Ti—V—Zr—Ni based alloys described above, alloys ofthe modified LaNi₅ type have generally been considered “ordered”materials that have a different chemistry and microstructure, andexhibit different electrochemical characteristics compared to theTi—V—Zr—Ni alloys. However, analysis reveals while the early unmodifiedLaNi₅ type alloys may have been ordered materials, the more recentlydeveloped, highly modified LaNi₅ alloys are not. The performance of theearly ordered LaNi₅ materials was poor. However, the modified LaNi₅alloys presently in use have a high degree of modification (that is asthe number and amount of elemental modifiers has increased) and theperformance of these alloys has improved significantly. This is due tothe disorder contributed by the modifiers as well as their electricaland chemical properties.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,536,591 considers the compositional microstructure ofhydrogen storage alloys in greater detail and recognizes that thecomposition of hydrogen storage alloys is more complicated than isindicated by the nominal or bulk composition. Specifically, the '591patent recognizes the importance of a surface oxide layer that istypically present in hydrogen storage alloys, and its influence on thecharging and discharging processes. In electrochemically drivenprocesses, for example, the oxide layer constitutes an interface betweenthe electrolyte and the bulk hydrogen storage alloy and accordingly mayalso be referred to as an interface layer or region. Since oxide layersare typically insulating, they generally inhibit the performance ofelectrodes utilizing metals or metal alloys. Prior to electrochemicalreaction, metal or metal alloy electrodes are typically activated, aprocess in which the surface oxide layer is removed, reduced or modifiedto improve performance. The process of activation may be accomplished,for example, by etching, electrical forming, pre-conditioning or othermethods suitable for removing or altering excess oxides or hydroxides.See, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,717,088, the disclosure of which ishereby incorporated by reference.

The '591 patent extended the Ovshinsky principles to the oxide layer ofhydrogen storage materials and thereby demonstrated improved catalyticactivity. Specifically, hydrogen storage alloys having Ni-enrichedcatalytic regions in the oxide layer are shown to have high catalyticactivity. The Ni-enriched catalytic regions may be prepared, forexample, through an activation process in which elements of the hydrogenstorage alloy other than Ni are preferentially corroded to provideregions of metallic nickel alloy of about 50-70 angstroms distributedthroughout the oxide layer. The Ni-enriched catalytic regions functionas catalytic sites having high activity. Formation of the Ni-enrichedcatalytic regions of the '591 patent is promoted by a pre-activationthermal annealing step. The annealing step acts to condition the surfaceregion of a hydrogen storage alloy and renders it more susceptible tothe formation of Ni-enriched catalytic regions during activation.

U.S. Pat. No. 4,716,088, the disclosure of which is incorporated hereinby reference, discloses, inter alia, a process for activating metalhydride storage materials to alter the relatively thin, but very densesurface oxide interface layer separating the bulk alloy material formingthe negative electrode in a nickel metal hydride battery from theelectrolyte (such as KOH). In the activation process, the thin surfaceoxide thickens as it is further oxidized upon exposure to theelectrolyte. However, the oxide also becomes more porous and therebyallows electrolyte to interact with the bulk metal and provide a pathwayfor the chemical reactions, specifically shuttling of hydrogen ions fromthe bulk metal alloy to the electrolyte.

Improving drastically on the disclosure of the '088 patent, the '591patent drastically changes the thicker, porous surface oxide formed bythe activation process taught by the '088 patent. The inventors thereofsurprisingly discovered that the steady state surface oxide of the '088patent could be characterized as having a relatively high concentrationof metallic nickel. An aspect of the '591 patent is that, by subjectingthe metal hydride alloy to a relative lengthy soak in KOH solution, atelevated temperature, a significant increase in the frequency ofoccurrence of these nickel regions as well as a more pronouncedlocalization of these regions. More specifically, the materials of the'591 patent have enriched nickel regions of 50-70 angstroms in diameterdistributed throughout the oxide interface and varying in proximity from2-300 angstroms, preferably 50-100 angstroms, from region to region. Asa result of the increase in the frequency of occurrence of these nickelregions, the materials of the '591 patent exhibit increased catalysisand conductivity.

The increased density of Ni regions in the '591 patent provides powderparticles having an enriched Ni surface. Prior to the '591 patent, Nienrichment was attempted unsuccessfully using microencapsulation. Themethod of Ni microencapsulation results in the deposition of a layer ofNi about 100 angstroms thick at the metal-electrolyte interface. Such anamount is excessive and results in no improvement of performancecharacteristics.

The enriched Ni regions of the '591 patent can be formed via thefollowing fabrication strategy: Specifically formulate an alloy having asurface region that is preferentially corroded during activation toproduce the enriched Ni regions. As stated in the '591 patent, it isbelieved that Ni is in association with an element such as Al atspecific surface regions and that this element corrodes preferentiallyduring activation, leaving the enriched Ni regions of the '591 patent.“Activation” as used herein and in the '591 patent refers to “etching”or other methods of removing excessive oxides, such as described in the'088 patent, as applied to electrode alloy powder, the finishedelectrode, or at any point in between in order to improve the hydrogentransfer rate.

The Ni-enriched catalytic regions of the '591 patent are discreteregions. The catalytic activity of the Ni-enriched catalytic regions iscontrollable by controlling their size, separation, chemical compositionand local topology. In one embodiment of the '591 patent, the discreteNi-enriched catalytic regions include metallic Ni particles having adiameter of 50-70 angstroms or less that are separated from each otherby distances of 2-300 angstroms. The Ni-enriched catalytic regions aredistributed throughout the oxide layer. The portions of the oxide layersurrounding the Ni-enriched catalytic regions or catalytic metallic Niparticles are referred to as the support matrix, supporting matrix,supporting oxide, oxide support or the like. The Ni-enriched catalyticregions are thus supported by or within the support matrix. The supportmatrix may include fine and coarse grained oxides and/or hydroxides ofone or more of the metallic elements present in the hydrogen storagealloy composition and may also include multiple phases, some of whichmay be microcrystalline, nanocrystalline or amorphous.

Further improvements over the alloys of the '591 patent are disclosed inU.S. Pat. No. 6,740,448, the disclosure of which is incorporated hereinby reference, wherein it is taught that superior catalysis and high ratedischarge performance can be achieved by one or more of thefollowing: 1) the catalytic metallic sites of the alloys are formed froma nickel alloy such as NiMnCoTi rather than just Ni; 2) the catalyticmetallic sites of the alloys are converted by elemental substitution toan FCC structure from the BCC structure of the prior art Ni sites; 3)the catalytic metallic sites of the alloys are much smaller in size(10-50, preferably 10-40, most preferably 10-30 angstroms) than the Nisites of the prior art alloys (50-70 angstroms) and have a finerdistribution (closer proximity); 4) the catalytic metallic sites of thealloys are surrounded by an oxide of a multivalent material (containingMnO_(x)) which is believed to possibly be catalytic as well, as opposedto the ZrTi oxide which surrounded the prior art Ni sites; 5) the oxidecould also be multiphase with very small (10-20 angstroms) Ni particlesfinely distributed in a MnCoTi oxide matrix; 6) the oxide may be a mixof fine and coarse grained oxides with finely dispersed catalyticmetallic sites; 7) alloy modification with aluminum may suppressnucleation of large (50-70 angstroms) catalytic metallic sites (at 100angstrom proximity) into a more desirable “catalytic cloud” (10-20angstroms in size and 10-20 angstroms proximity); 8) NiMn oxide is thepredominant microcrystalline phase in the oxide and the catalyticmetallic sites may be coated with NiMn oxide.

The oxide surface of the alloys of the '448 patent is the same thicknessas that of the prior art alloys; however, the modification of thosealloys is described as affecting the oxide surface in several beneficialways. First the oxide accessibility has been affected. That is, theadditives to the alloy have increased the porosity and the surface areaof the oxide. This is suggested to be caused by Al, Sn and Co. Themodifiers added to the alloy are readily soluble in the electrolyte andbelieved to “dissolve” out of the surface of the alloy material, leavinga less dense, more porous surface into which the electrolyte and ionscan easily diffuse. Second, the inventors of the '448 patent have notedthat the derivative alloys have a higher surface area than the prior artalloys, and it is believed that the mechanical properties of the alloy(i.e. hardness, ductility, etc.) have been affected. This allows thematerial to be crushed easier, and allows for more microcracks to beformed in the alloy material during production and also easier in-situformation of microcracks during electrochemical formation. Finally, theinventors of the '448 patent have noted that the alloys are morecatalytically active than the prior art alloys. This is believed to becaused by a more catalytic active oxide surface layer. This surfacelayer, as is the case with some prior art materials (see for exampleU.S. Pat. No. 5,536,591 to Fetcenko et al.), includes nickel particlestherein. These nickel particles are believed to provide the alloy withits surface catalytic activity. In the alloy of the '448 patent, theinventors believe there are a number of factors causing the instantincrease in catalytic surface activity. First, the inventors believethat the nickel particles are smaller and more evenly dispersed in theoxide surface of the instant alloy materials. The nickel particles arebelieved to be on the order of 10 to 50 angstroms in size. Second, theinventors believe that the nickel particles may also include otherelements such as cobalt, manganese and iron. These additional elementsmay enhance the catalytic activity of the nickel particles, possibly byincreasing the roughness and surface area of the nickel catalytic sitesthemselves. Third, the inventors of the '448 patent believe that theoxide layer itself is microcrystalline and has smaller crystallites thanprior art oxide. This is believed to increase catalytic activity byproviding grain boundaries within the oxide itself along which ions,such as hydrogen and hydroxyl ions, may move more freely to the nickelcatalyst particles which are situated in the grain boundaries. Finally,the instant inventors have noted that the concentrations of cobalt,manganese and iron in the oxide surface are higher than in the bulkalloy and higher than expected in the oxide layer.

The surface area of the alloy of the '448 patent increases in surfacearea by about a factor of four during treatment, and the higher surfacearea of the alloy is only partially responsible for the higher catalyticproperty of these alloys. As the AC impedance measurements demonstrated,the better catalytic activity of the surface of the inventive alloy alsocontributes to the enhanced catalytic behavior thereof.

Hence, the improved power and rate capability of the alloys of the '448patent is suggested to be the result of the higher surface area withinthe surface oxide as well as improved catalytic activity within theoxide due to the smaller size and finer dispersion of the nickelcatalyst particles compared to prior art materials. Observations fromhigh resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM)included presence of nickel catalyst “clouds” having a size in the 10-30angstrom range and extremely close proximity, on the order of 10-20 and10-50 angstrom distance. Another contributing factor to the improvedcatalysis shown by the alloys of the '448 patent is the transformationof the supporting oxide in which the Ni particles reside.

In other prior art materials, the supporting oxide may be primarily rareearth or TiZr based oxides while in the case of the materials of the'448 patent, the support oxide is now comprised of at least regions ofNiCoMnTi “super catalysts.” This could also be NiMn regions surroundedby TiZr oxide. These super catalysts show a surprising lack of oxygenbased on Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (EELS). It may be possiblethese regions are partially metallic or in a low oxidation state.

Another observation with the materials of the '448 patent is that priorart nickel catalytic regions within the oxide were BCC crystallographicorientation based on Select Area Electron Diffraction (SAED), which theinventive materials were observed to have an FCC orientation. It may bepossible that the catalytic regions of Ni have been partiallysubstituted by Co, Al, Mn, Sn, or other elements which have shifted thecrystallographic orientation. It is indeed likely the BCC to FCC Nishift reflects a higher degree of substitution. The inventors of the'448 patent theorize that it is also possible the FCC Ni in conjunctionwith NiCoMnTi regions and TiZr oxide may form a super lattice which mayfurther promote ionic diffusion and reaction. Still another theory basedon analytical evidence suggests that metallic Ni particles reside in aMn oxide support. The presence of the Mn oxide is intriguing in thatMnO_(x) is multivalent and could promote catalysis via changing oxidestates during the charge/discharge reactions.

Finally, another interpretation of the analytical evidence of the '448patent suggests even a multiphase surface oxide. In addition to metallicNi or Ni alloys, there appears to exist both a fine grained and coarsegrained support oxide. It is suggested that the coarse grained aspect tothe surface is dominated by TiZr prior art style oxide while theappearance of the fine grained support oxide in the materials may be theMnOx or NiMnCoTi oxide or a MnCoTi oxide.

The supporting matrix and catalytic sites thereof are further discussedin U.S. Pat. No. 6,270,719 (the '719 patent) to Fetcenko, Ovshinsky, andcolleagues. The '719 patent teaches additional modification ofNi-enriched regions to provide further improvements in catalyticactivity. The '719 patent teaches formation of catalytically activemetal-enriched regions comprising not only metallic Ni particles, butalso particles of metal alloys such as alloys of Ni with one or more ofCo, Cr, V, Pt, Pd, Au, Ag, Rh, Ti, Mn, or Al as well as other metalalloys (e.g. PtAu). The '719 patent further teaches that alloying mayprovide particles having an FCC structure instead of the BCC structureof the metallic Ni particles of the '591 patent.

The instant invention further considers the nature of the oxide supportlayer of hydrogen storage alloys and is particularly concerned withextending the Ovshinsky principles to the microstructure of the supportmatrix in order to obtain improved performance of electrochemical andthermal hydrogen storage alloys. The performance of hydrogen storagematerials is based on factors that include the intrinsic activity ofcatalytic sites, the number of catalytic sites, interactions betweencatalytic sites, interactions between catalytic sites and hydrogenstorage sites, the number of hydrogen storage sites and the stability ofhydrogen storage sites. These factors influence the hydrogen storagecapacity, thermodynamic properties, and kinetics of hydrogen storagematerials. The prior patents described hereinabove have demonstratedvarious ways to improve the activity of catalytic sites, the number ofcatalytic sites, the number of hydrogen storage sites, and the stabilityof hydrogen storage sites.

U.S. Pat. No. 6,830,725, the disclosure of which is incorporated hereinby reference, discusses additional features of the support matrix and/orcatalytic metallic regions or particles that are beneficial to theperformance of hydrogen storage materials. More specifically, the '725patent is concerned with beneficial modifications of the region at ornear the surface of a hydrogen storage alloy. The region at or near thesurface of a hydrogen storage alloy may also be referred to herein asthe surface or interface region, surface or interface layer, surface orinterface oxide or the like. The surface or interface region constitutesan interface between the electrolyte and the bulk portion of anelectrochemical hydrogen storage alloy. In one embodiment of the '725patent, the interface region includes catalytic metal or metal alloyparticles having angstrom scale dimensions that are supported by asurrounding support matrix having a higher degree of porosity than withpreviously known metal hydride alloys. As described therein, therelative proportions of catalytic metal or metal alloy particles andsupport matrix in the surface region vary with the composition andprocessing treatments of the instant hydrogen storage alloys.

The '725 patent describes a process for tuning the microstructure of thesupport matrix in the interface region of hydrogen storage alloys so asto create a more open network structure that facilitates the access ofreactant species to catalytic sites and the departure of product speciesaway from catalytic sites through voids or channels in the interfaceregion. Voids and channels of sufficient size relative to participatingreactant species (in charging or discharging processes) facilitate themobility of reactant species and may be referred to as reactant voids orchannels. The presence of reactant voids or channels in the interfaceregion of the instant alloys can lead to greater utilization ofcatalytic sites and improved performance, particularly at lowtemperature. Another aspect of the '725 patent focuses on tuning themicrostructure of the interface region of hydrogen storage alloys so asto increase the density of catalytic sites. A greater number ofcatalytic sites in a given volume of hydrogen storage alloy leads to anincrease in overall catalytic reactivity.

As will be explained in detail hereinbelow, the present inventionincorporates and builds on the above-described techniques and, amongother things, builds on the teaching of the prior art so as to furtherimprove the surface morphology, and hence the three-dimensionalconfiguration and the catalytic activity of the hydrogen storage alloymaterials in general, and their surface interface regions in particular.However, the improvement taught by the instant inventors is not trivial.The analysis performed on the subject microstructurally tuned interfacesurface reveals that for the first time the interfacial surface layer isnot the same throughout. A particle of hydrogen storage alloy materialhas a huge surface area and therefore a huge amount of interfacialsurface exposed to the electrolyte. Heretofore, analyses of the variousareas of the surface oxide revealed identical surface morphologies,i.e., approximately the same density of metallic nickel alloy particlesand voids or pores or channels into the surface oxide. For the firsttime, applicants have changed the morphology of adjacent regions of theinterfacial surface. The change in average size of the channels enhancesthe performance of the alloy, in particular under low temperatureconditions. The alloys of the present invention may include modifierswhich may hereinafter be referred to as modifying elements,microstructure tuning elements, microstructure modifiers, support matrixmodifiers, supporting oxide modifiers, surface or interface regionmodifiers or the like. The presence of the formula modifiers incombination with other elements provides an overall alloy formulationthat provides the beneficial microstructural and porosity effects of theinstant invention.

In the absence of microstructure tuning according to the instantinvention, the base alloys may have metal enriched catalytic regionsthat include catalytically active particles comprised of nickel, nickelalloy as well as other metals or metal alloys as described in the '591,'725 and '719 patents.

Microstructure tuning according to the instant invention permits controlof the morphology, and in particular the three-dimensional structure, ofthe interface layer surrounding the catalytically active particles andthereby enhances the mobility of relevant molecules or molecular speciesin electrochemical or thermal charging or discharging processes withrespect to the alloy material. The microstructure of the instant alloyshas specifically configured voids or channels which define athree-dimensional structure that facilitates access of reactant specieswithin the surface region as well as to and from catalytic particles orregions. The instant voids or channels include a higher density ofcatalytic metallic particles therein.

The characteristics and range of modifications of the support matrixsurrounding the catalytic metal-enriched regions of the hydrogen storagematerials of the prior art have not been fully optimized. Incidentalvariations of the support matrix as a result of effects intended toimprove the performance or number of catalytic and hydrogen storagesites have been mentioned, but no teaching of the intentionalmodification of the three-dimensional morphology of the support matrixhas been presented. In the '591 patent, for example, formation ofNi-enriched regions was believed to provide a somewhat more poroussupporting oxide. In the '719 patent, as another example, inclusion ofMn in the bulk composition of the hydrogen storage alloy was proposed toprovide a multivalent MnO_(x) component to the oxide layer where themultivalent component may have catalytic properties.

Tuning of the three-dimensional structure and catalytic sites of thechannels in the oxide interface layer of the materials of the presentinvention provides an additional degree of freedom for optimizing theperformance of electrochemical and thermal hydrogen storage materials.In addition to the intrinsic activity, number, and interactions amongand between catalytic sites, hydrogen storage sites and surroundingmaterial described hereinabove, high performance further requires that ahydrogen bearing source such as hydrogen gas or water has accessibilityto a catalytic site. The concept of accessibility further extends to theability of byproducts formed during charging or products formed duringdischarging to depart catalytic sites so that the site may be furtherutilized.

As an example, an electrochemical hydrogen storage alloy that includesmetal enriched catalytic regions may be considered wherein the alloy isincluded as the negative electrode of a rechargeable battery in thepresence of an aqueous electrolyte. Upon charging, water accesses ametal enriched catalytic site to form atomic hydrogen for storage and ahydroxyl ion byproduct. In order for this charging process to occur, thesupport matrix surrounding metal enriched catalytic sites must besufficiently open or porous to permit water molecules from theelectrolyte to access the metal enriched catalytic sites. Additionally,in order to continually effect catalysis at a metal enriched catalyticsite, the support matrix must permit hydroxyl ion formed during chargingto migrate, diffuse or otherwise depart from the catalytic site so thatthe access of further water molecules to the catalytic site is notimpeded or otherwise blocked by the presence of a hydroxyl ion. Similarconsiderations apply on discharging. Upon discharging, stored hydrogencombines with hydroxyl ions at a catalytic site to form water. In orderto achieve high discharge rates, it is preferable for the support matrixto be sufficiently porous to allow for the facile departure of watermolecules formed upon discharging away from the catalytic site. If thedeparture of water molecules is inhibited by the support matrix, thecatalytic site is effectively blocked and additional discharging may beinhibited. Optimal discharging requires not only rapid formation ofproduct, but also rapid departure or transport of products (andbyproducts, if present) away from the catalytic site so that the site isavailable for further participation in the discharge reaction. Inaddition to reactants, products and byproducts, the accessibility andmobility of ions in the electrolyte to catalytic sites, hydrogen storagesites and within a hydrogen storage material may also be relevant to theoverall performance and efficiency of charging and dischargingreactions.

Insufficient porosity and/or an inadequate pore morphology of thesupport matrix may inhibit access to or departure from catalytic sites,for example, by presenting a structure having openings or channels thatare too small to provide facile migration of molecular species to and/orfrom a catalytic site. Thus, even if a particular catalytic site (e.g.within a metal enriched catalytic region or catalytic metallic particle)has high activity, fast kinetics for charging and discharging etc.,inability of reactant molecules or electrolyte species to access thecatalytic site or inability of product molecules or electrolyte speciesto depart the catalytic sites may have a deleterious effect on theperformance of a hydrogen storage material.

In addition to structural barriers associated with accessing ordeparting a catalytic site, a supporting matrix may also present steric,electronic or other barriers. Electronic barriers generally arise fromintermolecular forces of attraction or repulsion that may be presentbetween the support matrix and migrating or diffusing molecules orchemical species. Electrostatic, van der Waals, bonding, etc.interactions may act to impede migration or diffusion even ifsufficiently large structural pathways for migration are availablewithin the support matrix. The concept of porosity as used herein isintended to broadly encompass barriers or inhibitions, regardless oforigin, provided by the support matrix to the migration or diffusion ofspecies participating in charging or discharging processes. A highlyporous support matrix provides few barriers to migration or diffusion,while a low porosity or highly dense support matrix provides substantialbarriers to migration or diffusion.

The ability of a molecule or other chemical species to access or departa catalytic site may also be referred to as the mobility of the moleculewithin or with respect to the support matrix. A molecule or chemicalspecies having high mobility is readily able to penetrate, migratethrough, diffuse within or otherwise transport through or within thesupport matrix. High mobility implies greater accessibility of reactantsto catalytic sites during charging and greater ability of products todepart from a catalytic site during discharging. High mobility alsoimplies a greater ability of byproducts to depart from a catalytic siteduring either or both of charging and discharging. High mobility of aspecies through a support matrix implies that the support matrixprovides few barriers (structurally, sterically, electronically, etc.)to migration or diffusion. The transport of electrolyte species issimilarly facilitated through a support matrix that provides highmobility. Phenomenologically, species mobility and accessibility tocatalytic sites may be manifested in the charge transfer resistance,particularly at low temperature, of an electrochemically driven process.Charge transfer resistance is a measure of the facility of the basicelectrodic electron transfer process of an electrochemical reaction. Ahigh charge transfer resistance implies an inhibited electron transferprocess. Factors contributing to an inhibition include low number ofcatalytic sites, low activity of catalytic sites, or inability ofrelevant molecules and molecular species to access or depart catalyticsites. A highly dense oxide support matrix inhibits the charge transferprocess by impeding access to and/or departure from a catalytic site.This inhibition contributes to a large charge transfer resistance andslows the kinetics of an electrochemical process. As the porosity andthree-dimensional morphology of the material increases, the chargetransfer resistance decreases as species mobility and accessibility tocatalytic sites improves. As porosity and morphology are optimized, thesupport matrix is no longer the dominating factor in determining thecharge transfer resistance. Instead, the number and/or activity ofcatalytic sites or the concentration of reactive species may becomecontrolling.

The mobility of a molecule or other molecular species with respect to asupport matrix may be influenced by external factors such as thetemperature. Temperature is a relevant consideration because it controlsthe thermal energy of a molecule. Higher temperatures provide higherthermal energies to molecules and molecular species that access ordepart from a catalytic site thereby better enabling them to overcomestructural, steric, electronic or other barriers to mobility created bya support matrix. A support matrix that provides sufficient mobility atone temperature with respect to a particular charging or dischargingprocess may not provide sufficient mobility at a lower temperaturebecause of a reduction of thermal energy available to one or moremolecules or molecular species requiring access to or departure from acatalytic region. The thermal energy of mobile molecules or speciesrelative to the activation energies of barriers to mobility provided bythe support matrix influences the effectiveness of charging anddischarging.

The instant invention provides hydrogen storage materials having apreferred three-dimensional support matrix micro and macrostructure anda catalytic ability that enhances the mobility of relevant molecules andmolecular species. Mobility enhancements are provided at elevatedtemperatures, room temperature and low temperatures. Mobilityenhancements are provided by the inclusion or formation of specificallyconfigured, catalytically active channels in the surface region of thealloy. In a preferred embodiment, an instant hydrogen storage materialis utilized as the active material in the negative electrode of a nickelmetal hydride battery that provides superior discharge kinetics attemperatures below 0° C.

In addition to porosity modifications, accelerated and directedpreferential corrosion may also lead to a relative local enhancement, ator in the vicinity of the surface, of the concentration of one or moreelements that are less susceptible to corrosion. As in the patentsincorporated by reference hereinabove, local enhancements in theconcentrations of one or more metals may facilitate the formation ofmetal enriched regions that include catalytic metallic particles.

While not wishing to be bound by theory, the instant inventors believethat the improved morphology of the channel structure of the interfacelayer and/or increased density and/or optimized size of catalyticmetallic particles afforded by the instant invention may, at least insome embodiments of the instant hydrogen storage alloys, occursynergistically. That is, an increase in the porosity andthree-dimensional structure of the support matrix may promote theformation of catalytic metallic particles and vice versa. Rather thanmerely providing local metal enriched regions that include catalyticparticles supported on an oxide matrix as in the prior art, the instantinvention provides a support matrix comprising a series of convoluted,interconnected voids or channels defining a three-dimensional,sponge-like morphology. In addition, at least portions of the interiorsurfaces of these interconnected channels are catalytically active andas such include a number of catalytic metallic particles therein.

A key operative feature of the present invention is to provide accessbetween the voids and the catalysts. It is also possible that theintroduction of one or more non-modifier elements and/or implementationof one or more chemical processes may also operate to provide thebeneficial three-dimensional structural and porosity effects of theinstant invention. Such elements and processes can include chemicalpretreatments designed to selectively attack one or more of the supportoxide elements. For example, HF may provide the final desired oxideporosity. The reader must understand that the subject invention defines,in numerous ways, over the invention disclosed by the assignee in the'725 patent, the disclosure of which applicant considers the closestprior art. First, the increased porosity is due to not only a change inthe cross-sectional size of the channels, but also to thethree-dimensional shape of those channels as they extend through thesurface oxide. While applicant has provided analysis describing channelsize, it is to be understood that the size of the openings will varybased on alloy formulations and processing conditions such aspreferential corrosion concentrations, duration and temperature. Inother words, applicants have supplied additional micro andmacrostructural tuning tools that those of ordinary skill in the art mayuse. Second, the large, three-dimensional channels have the catalytic,metallic nickel alloy particles distributed therethroughout, and astructure of this type is not shown, taught, or obvious from a review ofthe '725 patent. Third, additional modifiers present in the bulk alloymay now be found in the metallic nickel alloy particles. These are nottrivial differences; applicants themselves were surprised to learn ofthe existence thereof when conducting TEM analysis to understand thereason for the improved electrochemical results they had seen. Theelectrochemical results due to the vastly improved micro andmacrostructure and catalytic activity of the materials of the subjectinvention move NiMH batteries into the forefront of battery technologywith a huge operational temperature range due in part to the large,three-dimensional channels and the ability to accept and deliver hugecurrent densities due to the improved catalysis of the nickel alloyparticles which cover the exterior and interior of the surface oxide.

Hydrogen storage materials suitable for microstructure tuning accordingto the instant invention include base hydrogen storage alloys comprisingone or more transition metals or rare earths as well as base alloys incombination with a microstructure tuning element. Base alloys having theformula types AB, AB₂, AB₅, or A₂B and mixtures thereof are within thescope of the instant invention where components A and B may betransition metals, rare earths or combinations thereof in whichcomponent A generally has a stronger tendency to form hydrides thancomponent B.

In the base AB hydrogen storage compositions, A is preferably Ti, Zr, Vor mixtures or alloys thereof and B is preferably selected from thegroup consisting of Ni, V, Cr, Co, Mn, Mo, Nb, Al, Mg, Ag, Zn or Pd andmixtures or alloys thereof. Base AB compositions include ZrNi, ZrCo,TiNi, and TiCo as well as modified forms thereof. Representative base ABcompositions and modified forms thereof within the scope of the instantinvention include those described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,623,597;5,840,440; 5,536,591; and 6,270,719 incorporated by referencehereinabove as well as in U.S. Pat. No. 5,096,667, the disclosure ofwhich is hereby incorporated by reference.

Base A₂B compositions include Mg₂Ni as well as modified forms thereofaccording to the Ovshinsky principles in which either or both of Mg andNi is wholly or partially replaced by a multi-orbital modifier.

Base AB₂ compositions are Laves phase compounds and include compositionsin which A is Zr, Ti or mixtures or alloys thereof and B is Ni, V, Cr,Mn, Co, Mo, Ta, Nb or mixtures or alloys thereof. The instant inventionalso includes base AB₂ compositions modified according to the Ovshinskyprinciples described hereinabove. Representative base AB₂ compositionswithin the scope of the instant invention are discussed in U.S. Pat. No.5,096,667 incorporated by reference hereinabove.

Base AB₅ compositions include those in which A is a lanthanide elementor a mixture or alloy thereof and B is a transition metal element or amixture or alloy thereof. LaNi₅ is the prototypical base AB₅ compoundand has been modified in various ways to improve its properties. Ni maybe partially replaced by elements including Mn, Co, Al, Cr, Ag, Pd, Rh,Sb, V, or Pt, including combinations thereof. La may be partiallyreplaced by elements including Cc, Pr, Nd, or other rare earthsincluding combinations thereof. Mischmetal may also wholly or partiallyreplace La. The instant invention also includes base AB₅ compositionsmodified according to the Ovshinsky principles described hereinabove.Representative base AB₅ compositions within the scope of the instantinvention have been discussed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,096,667 and 5,536,591incorporated by reference hereinabove.

Modified Mg-based alloys such as those described in U.S. Pat. Nos.5,616,432 and 6,193,929, the disclosures of which are herebyincorporated by reference, are also within the scope of the instantinvention.

The base alloys of the instant invention may also comprisenon-stoichiometric compositions achieved through application of theOvshinsky principles. Non-stoichiometric compositions are compositionsin which the ratio of elements may not be expressible in terms of simpleratios of small whole numbers. Representative non-stoichiometriccompositions include AB_(1±x), AB_(2±x), AB_(5±x), and A₂B_(1±x), wherex is a measure of the non-stoichiometric compositional deviation. Thebase alloys of the instant invention may also comprise multiphasematerials where a multiphase material is a combination or mixture ofmaterials having different stoichiometries, microstructures and/orstructural phases. Structural phases include crystalline phases,microcrystalline phases, nanocrystalline phases and amorphous phases.

In some embodiments, increased support matrix porosity and/or increaseddensity of catalytic metallic particles results from inclusion of amodifying element in the base alloy composition. In other embodiments,inclusion of a modifying element in combination with a reduction in theamount of one or more elements of the base alloy composition providesincreased porosity of the support matrix and/or increased density ofcatalytic metallic particles. In still other embodiments, microstructuretuning occurs through formation, processing, treatment, activation oroperation steps as described hereinabove.

The instant hydrogen storage alloys may be prepared by a variety ofmethods that include melt casting, induction melting, rapidsolidification, mechanical alloying, sputtering and gas atomization. Animportant aspect of the preparation process of many hydrogen storagealloys is a post-formation annealing step in which the material asformed during preparation is subjected to an annealing treatment. Theannealing treatment includes heating the material to an elevatedtemperature for a sufficient period of time. An effect of annealing isto alter or condition the surface of the hydrogen storage material insuch a way that the material is susceptible to or responsive to theaccelerated and directed preferential corrosion process describedhereinabove that leads to formation of angstrom scale catalytic metal ormetal alloy particles and greater void volume fraction of, and improvedthree-dimensional morphology in the surface region. The extent to whichaccelerated and directed preferential corrosion forms angstrom scalecatalytic particles during activation is influenced by the localcomposition at or near the surface. In the materials of the '591 and'719 patents incorporated by reference hereinabove, local nickelenrichment in the surface region was observed to enable or facilitateformation of angstrom scale catalytic nickel or nickel alloy particlesupon activation. A suitable annealing step induces a condition in thesurface region in which the nickel concentration is enriched relative tothe statistical concentration expected from the formula unit of thehydrogen storage alloy. Annealing under appropriate conditions initiatesa segregation of nickel away from the bulk and toward the surface regionto provide a nickel enriched surface region.

While not wishing to be bound by theory, the instant inventors believethat formation of a surface region having a sufficiently high nickelconcentration enables formation of angstrom scale catalytic nickel ornickel alloy particles upon activation. In addition to a high nickelconcentration, a nickel enriched surface region may also includemicrostructural features that facilitate formation of angstrom scalecatalytic nickel or nickel alloy particles. The annealing inducedsegregation, for example, may be accompanied by local changes in phase,structure, crystallinity, grains, interfaces, etc. in the surface regionthat may be conducive to formation of angstrom scale catalytic nickel ornickel alloy particles during activation. In connection with thematerials of the '591 patent, the instant inventors have demonstratedthat angstrom scale catalytic nickel or nickel alloy particles do notform upon activation of materials that have not been subjected to anannealing step. Instead of unoxidized metallic nickel or nickel alloyparticles, the surface region of unannealed materials comprises oxidizednickel in the form of an Ni^(n+)-rich oxide phase.

The segregation effect observed upon annealing the materials of the '591patent is believed to be enhanced under the influence of microstructuretuning as described for example in the '725 patent. Inclusion of amicrostructure tuning element, for example, may lead to greatersegregation of nickel and a greater local enrichment of nickelconcentration in the instant hydrogen storage alloys relative to thehydrogen storage alloys of the '591 or '719 patents. A local enrichmentof other metals such as Co or a microstructure tuning element itself mayalso occur.

Nickel metal hydride batteries are replacing nickel cadmium batteries ina large number of applications, owing to environmental concerns andtheir generally improved performance characteristics. It is to be notedthat for purposes of this disclosure the terms “batteries” and “cells”will be used interchangeably when referring to one electrochemical cell,although the term “battery” can also refer to a plurality ofelectrically interconnected cells.

While nickel cadmium batteries are generally inferior to nickel metalhydride batteries in most regards, they do exhibit superior performancecharacteristics at ultra-low temperatures (typically −30° C. and below).Consequently, a number of attempts have been implemented in the priorart to improve the ultra low-temperature performance of nickel metalhydride batteries. These prior art approaches generally involve themodification of the base alloy with one or more microstructure tuningelements that act to favorably tailor the properties of the supportingmatrix to provide a higher concentration of catalytic metallic particlesas well as greater accessibility of reactive species to the catalyticmetallic particles. The microstructure tuning elements facilitate anaccelerated and directed preferential corrosion of the support matrixduring activation or operation to provide a more porous and accessiblesupport matrix that also includes locally enriched concentrations ofcatalytic metallic particles distributed throughout the surface regionof the instant hydrogen storage alloys. As the support matrix becomesmore porous and less oxidic, the catalytic metallic particles may becomeat least partially self supporting. The microstructure tuning elementsinclude Cu, Fe, Al, Zn and Sn. In general, the results achieved in theprior art by such approaches were somewhat limited and were primarilyrestricted to those metal alloys belonging to the AB₅ class.

Presently, there is significant interest in utilizing AB₂ type alloys inmetal hydride battery systems, due to the fact that AB₂ type materials,unlike AB₅ alloy materials, generally do not incorporate significantamounts of expensive rare earth elements. Furthermore, batteriesincorporating AB₂ materials utilizing lightweight metals generallyexhibit high gravimetric storage capacities. However, the art has notyet found methods or materials for increasing the ultra low-temperatureperformance of AB₂ type alloy materials. Hence, it will be appreciatedthat there is a need in the art for methods and materials which can (1)improve the low-temperature performance of the general class of AB_(x)type alloy materials; and (2) there is a particular need for methods andmaterials which can specifically improve the performance of AB₂ typemetal hydride alloy materials at ultra low-temperatures.

As will be explained hereinbelow, the present invention is directed toAB_(x) type metal hydride alloy materials which include modifierelements therein which operate to increase the surface area and/orcatalytic ability of the alloy so as to thereby increase theirlow-temperature electrochemical performance in rechargeable batterycells. These and other advantages of the invention will be apparent fromthe drawings, discussion, and description which follow.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Disclosed is a method for improving the low-temperature electrochemicalperformance of an AB_(x) (1≦x≦5) type metal hydride alloy which isincorporated into a rechargeable battery. The method comprises the stepof adding an element to the alloy which element is operative to increasethe surface area and/or catalytic ability of the alloy. In particularinstances, the element increases the surface area of the alloy by afactor of greater than 2, and the catalytic ability of the alloy by morethan 20%. In some instances, the element increases the surface area ofthe alloy by a factor of at least 4; and in particular instances, theelement acts to increase both the surface area and the catalyticactivity of the alloy. The element may, in some instances, be selectedfrom the group consisting of Si, Mo, Y, Sn, Sb, and combinationsthereof; and in particular instances the element comprises Si. Theamount of the element is greater than zero, and typically is at least0.1 atomic percent, and in particular instances at least 0.5 atomicpercent. In some instances, the element comprises up to 10 atomicpercent of the alloy, and in particular instances, the amount of theelement ranges up to 5 atomic percent of the alloy.

The alloy may comprise an AB₂ alloy, an AB₅ alloy, an A₂B₇ alloy, aswell as combinations thereof. In particular instances, the alloy is anAB₂ Laves phase alloy. The alloy may comprise a nickel metal hydridealloy and the element may substitute for a portion of the nickel in thealloy.

In some instances, the additive promotes preferential corrosion and/orother structural rearrangements and enables the formation of aparticular surface microstructure which comprises channel or tunnel-likepassages having highly catalytic sites disposed thereupon.

Further disclosed are particular materials made by the method of thepresent invention. These materials may have a uniform bulk compositionor they may be composites of two or more different types of alloys. Alsodisclosed are battery structures including the alloys and composites ofthe present invention.

Another aspect of the subject invention is a novel hydrogen storagealloy material for a rechargeable battery, said material comprising abulk alloy and an interface layer on the exposed surfaces thereof, saidinterface layer comprising at least two adjacent regions, each adjacentregion of the interface layer having a morphology which differs from themorphology of at least one of another of said at least two regions. Inparticular instances, the morphologies are selected from the groupconsisting of: a structure without catalyst material, a structure with acatalyst material, a porous structure with a catalyst material, a porousstructure comprising a plurality of interconnected channels not having acatalytic material disposed in said channels, and a porous structurecomprising a plurality of interconnected channels having a catalyticmaterial disposed in at least a portion of said channels.

In a further significant invention disclosed herein, we describe astorage material for a rechargeable battery, said material comprising amulti-element bulk alloy material with an interface layer on the exposedsurfaces thereof. The bulk alloy has more than one phase and theinterface layer comprises at least two adjacent regions, each adjacentregion of the interface layer has a morphology and/or chemicalcomposition which differs from the morphology and/or chemicalcomposition of at least one of another of said at least two regions andeach of the differing regions is associated with one of the phases ofthe bulk alloy material.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic depiction of the microstructure of a hydridematerial of the prior art;

FIG. 2 is a schematic depiction of the microstructure of another hydridematerial of the prior art;

FIG. 3A is a schematic depiction of the microstructure of a firstmaterial of the present invention;

FIG. 3B is a schematic depiction of another material of the presentinvention comprising a plurality of regions of differing microstructure;

FIG. 3C is a schematic depiction of yet another material of the presentinvention comprising a plurality of regions of differing microstructure;

FIG. 4A is a schematic depiction of a particle of a material of thepresent invention;

FIG. 4B is a schematic depiction of a particle of a conventional metalhydride material;

FIGS. 5A-5E are schematic depictions of composite metal hydridematerials in accord with the present invention;

FIG. 6 is a graph showing x-ray diffraction data patterns for a group ofmaterials prepared in accord with the present invention;

FIG. 7 is a graph showing lattice constants and C14 unit cell volume forthe alloys depicted in FIG. 6;

FIG. 8 is a graph of charge transfer resistance as a function of thecontent of various additives in a series of hydride alloy materials;

FIG. 9 is a graph showing double layer capacitance as a function ofadditive content for the materials of FIG. 8;

FIG. 10 is a graph of the product of the charge transfer resistance anddouble layer capacitance of the materials of FIGS. 8 and 9 demonstratingthe catalytic ability thereof; and

FIGS. 11 and 12 are Transmission Electron Micrographs showing thestructure of two different portions of the surface oxide layer of amaterial of the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

The present invention is directed to metal hydride alloy materials ofthe AB_(x) type, and in some particular instances AB₂ type metal hydridealloy materials, which manifest improved ultra low-temperatureelectrochemical properties when incorporated into metal hydride batterycells. It is to be understood that within the context of thisdescription, the hydrogen storage alloy material of the presentinvention may be of a single chemical composition which is present inone or more phases, or the alloy material may be a composite of two ormore differing chemical compositions. The alloys of the presentinvention include modifier elements therein which control theirmorphology and/or provide for the improved low-temperature performance.While not wishing to be bound by speculation, the inventors hereofbelieve that the modifier elements act to expand the lattice of thealloy material and/or increase the surface area of the alloy material,and/or enable the formation of particular surface morphologies.Alternatively, or in addition, the presence of the modifier elementincreases the catalytic activity of the alloy material in the metalhydride battery cell. In specific instances, the surface area of thealloy is increased by a factor of more than twofold, and in someinstances more than fourfold, and in some particular instances by atleast fivefold. The catalytic activity of the material is increased bymore than 20%. While not wishing to be bound by speculation, it ispostulated that the increase in catalytic activity is at least in part aresult of morphologies resultant from the lattice expansion and/or theincrease in the surface area of the alloy.

It has been found that in some instances, materials of the presentinvention manifest a microstructure characterized by the presence of anumber of tunnel-like channels or wormholes therein. These channels havea cross-sectional dimension which is approximately 25-150 angstroms, andin some instances 50-150 angstroms, and in specific instancesapproximately 100 angstroms. In some instances, the channels may beapproximately circular in cross-section; while in other instances, theymay be of a more irregular shape, such as an oval shape, or a somewhatflattened shape. For this reason, their width dimension is characterizedas a cross-sectional dimension rather than as being a diameter. And, itis to be understood that this term is meant to be interpretedinclusively with regard to circular cross sections as well as moreirregular cross-sections.

These channels commence at the free surface of the alloy material and atleast some of them extend into the bulk of the metal alloy. The channelsexhibit a three-dimensional structure whereby the channels are at leastpartially interconnected so as to form a network defining a sponge-likemorphology. Microanalysis indicates that the channels include arelatively high density of catalytic sites disposed upon their walls.These sites are nickel rich and comprise metallic nickel and/or nickelcompounds such as nickel oxides.

While not wishing to be bound by speculation, the inventors hereofbelieve that this novel channel and catalyst structure is responsiblefor the high degree of catalytic activity manifested by the materials ofthe present invention. In this regard, the three-dimensional,interconnected nature of the channels provides direct exposure of thecatalyst particles contained therein to a continuous, high volume flowof electrolyte and reactive species contained therein. The channelstructure also allows for the high volume flow of the electrolyte andreactive species to the bulk metal of the alloy. In this manner, theactivity and efficiency of the catalyst is greatly increased, ascompared to prior art structures in which much of the catalytic materialis detrimentally shielded by the oxide component of the surfaceinterface layer. It is also presumed that the configuration and natureof these tunnel-like catalytic channels is at least in part responsiblefor the enhanced low temperature performance of the alloy materials ofthe present invention. Under low temperature conditions the electrolytematerial of a battery system greatly increases in viscosity (and in someinstances freezes) and thereby impairs the mobility of electrochemicallyactive species such as hydrogen, H⁻, OH⁻ and the like, preventing themfrom contacting active sites. The high volume electrolyte flow achievedthrough the morphology of the present invention sustains mobility of theactive species, which with the enhanced catalytic activity of thepresent materials provides for enhanced low-temperature operation.

Prior art materials of the type discussed above may also manifest voidsor other such features which increase the surface area of the material;however, these features are typically in a size range of 5-20 angstroms,and do not exhibit the three-dimensional interconnected morphology ofthe materials of the present invention, and do not manifest the presenceof catalytic sites therein. As such, prior art materials such as thoseof the '725 patent are in contrast to the larger diameter, tunnel-like,catalytic channels of the materials of the present invention.

FIGS. 1 and 2 are schematic depictions of the surface microstructure ofmaterials of the prior art. FIG. 3A is a schematic depiction of thesurface microstructure of a generalized material of the presentinvention, and FIGS. 3B and 3C are schematic depictions of the surfacemicrostructure and macrostructure of some materials of the presentinvention which include adjacent regions having differingmicrostructures.

FIG. 1 shows a prior art nickel metal hydride material of the type shownin the U.S. Pat. No. 5,536,591, which comprises a bulk alloy portion 12of the nominal material composition. Disposed atop the bulk alloyportion is a body of surface material which comprises, as a majority, amixed body of oxides 14 of the various metals comprising the bulk 12.The figure shows this oxide body 14 as being a uniform field; however,it is to be understood that the microstructure of the material mayinclude regions of varying concentration. Disposed within the oxide body14 are a number of catalytic sites 18 which are generally believed tocomprise clusters of a metallic material such as a nickel-basedmaterial. As such, these clusters may comprise elemental nickel and/ornickel oxides or the like. As discussed above, this oxide body issomewhat permeable to electrolyte materials; however, even uponmicroscopic analysis, no pore or channel structure is apparent, and assuch, these types of materials are considered to have only “thresholdporosity.” Hence, their catalytic sites are at least somewhat shieldedfrom direct contact with the electrolyte material, thereby inhibitingcatalytic activity.

FIG. 2 is a schematic depiction of a section of a later generationmaterial of this type, as for example material shown in U.S. Pat. No.6,830,725. As in FIG. 1, the material includes a bulk alloy portion 12as well as a surface oxide portion 14. It will be noted that the oxideportion 14, also includes a number of pores or voids 16 therein. Thesevoids greatly increase the surface area of the oxide portion 14. Thevoids 16 of the FIG. 2 material communicate, in some instances, with thetop surface of the oxide body 14; however they are relatively linearstructures and in that regard can be considered to have an essentiallytwo-dimensional macrostructure. Disposed within the oxide body 14 of theFIG. 2 material are a number of catalytic sites 18, which are generallysimilar to those previously described. As will be seen from FIG. 2, theelongated, two-dimensional voids 16 of the FIG. 2 material tend tocommunicate, at least to some degree, with the catalytic sites 18, andit is believed that they thus allow for better access of the catalyticsites to reactive species such as hydrogen, hydrogen ions, and hydroxylions as compared to the FIG. 1 material.

Referring now to FIG. 3A, there is shown a corresponding schematicdepiction of a material of the present invention. As in FIGS. 1 and 2,the material includes a bulk alloy portion 12 and an oxide body 14disposed upon an outer surface thereof. However, the material of FIG. 3Aincludes a series of catalytically active channels (also referred to as“tunnels” or “wormholes”) defined through the surface oxide body 14.These channels 20 are, at least to some degree, in communication withone another and form a network defining a three-dimensionalmacrostructure which communicates with an exterior surface of thematerial and with the bulk metal alloy. The channels 20 of FIG. 3A aregenerally of a greater cross-sectional dimension than are the voids ofthe prior art material of 2; furthermore, the catalytically active sites18 are disposed, at least in part, on the interior walls of the channels20. In particular aspects of the present invention, the catalytic sites18 are much smaller than those of the prior art. In this regard, thecatalytic sites may range in size from 5 to 15 Angstroms, and in someparticular instances they will be smaller than 10 Angstroms. Thepresence of such small catalytic sires is not shown or suggested in theprior art, and is believed to be at least in part responsible for thehigh degree of catalytic activity manifested by the materials of thepresent invention.

The three-dimensional morphology of the material of FIG. 3A allows forgreatly enhanced access of reactive species to the catalytic sites andto the bulk of the alloy thereby enhancing and facilitatingelectrochemical reactions so as to enhance the performance, andparticularly the low temperature performance, of the alloy material. Inthis way, the channels 20 and catalytic sites 18 cooperate and interactsynergistically to define macrocatalytic sites which enhance theperformance, and particularly the low temperature performance, of thematerial.

In some instances, the catalytically active channels are uniformlydispersed across the entire surface of the alloy material. It issignificant that in other embodiments of the invention, the channelfeatures are present in spaced apart regions of the material and as suchcan be considered to be discrete macrocatalytic sites which function asactivation centers which enhance the properties of the remainder of thealloy such as its low temperature operation or its discharge rate. Whilenot wishing to be bound by speculation, the inventors hereof believethat the presence of such discrete, spaced apart sites of differingsurface morphology may be the result of the presence of regions ofdiffering structure and/or composition in the bulk of the materials ofthe present invention. For example the material may comprise a firstnumber of regions of a highly channeled AB₂ material interspersed withregions of a non-channeled or lesser channeled material such as an AB₅material. In other instances the differing regions may be differentphases of a Laves phase material. In some instances the degree ofcrystallinity of the regions may differ. For example some of the regionsmay be crystalline or microcrystalline, while the others may beamorphous. Such structural and/or compositional differences will producedifferent surface morphologies upon activation. Materials embodying thisparticular aspect of the present invention stand in further contrast tomaterials of the prior art, such as those of the '725 patent, whereinthe surface morphology of the alloy and its interface layer isessentially homogeneous thereacross.

The inventors hereof note that analyses of the alloys of the prior art,such as the alloys of the '725 patent and the other patents discussedabove, shows that the surfaces of such alloys are homogeneous withregard to their microstructure. That is to say, any one region of thesurface of prior art alloys is essentially identical to any other regionwith regard to the presence of pores, channels, catalytic sites, and thelike. The only way in which discrete areas of differing morphologiescould possibly be created in the prior art would be by some type ofdifferential treatment protocol involving patterning, masking, or thelike; and the inventors hereof are not aware of any such treatmentsbeing shown or discussed in the prior art. While not wishing to be boundby speculation, the inventors hereof believe that the presence of themodifier elements can foster the creation of different phases in thematerial. These phases differ in composition and/or structure, and whenthey are exposed to activating conditions they form regions havingdifferent surface morphologies. Hence, in the materials of the presentinvention some regions of the surface interface layer may have athree-dimensional highly catalytic channel morphology, while otherregions may be pore free or they may have a threshold porosity or theymay have a two-dimensional pore morphology. Some of the aforedescribedmacrocatalytic sites may, as a result of highly enhanced electrochemicalactivity, act as localized heating sites which function to initiate theelectrochemical activity of the bulk of the material and/or maintainfluidity of the electrolyte thereby enhancing the low temperatureperformance of the bulk of the alloy.

Referring now to FIG. 3B, there is shown a schematic depiction of themicro and macrostructure of an alloy material of the present inventionwhich includes regions having a different microstructure, in particularof the surface interface layer. As will be seen, the material includes afirst region 17 which has a surface interface layer having a morphologygenerally similar to that described with regard to FIG. 3A. As in FIG.3A, this surface interface layer is formed upon a body of bulk material12 and includes a plurality of three-dimensionally structured catalyticchannels 20 having catalytic sites 18 defined thereupon. As in the FIG.3A embodiment, the bulk oxide material 14 may also include somecatalytic sites 18 defined therein in particular instances. Adjacent tothe first region 17 is a second region 19 comprising a body of oxidematerial 14′ formed upon a body of bulk alloy material 12′. As notedabove, the composition of the bulk alloy 12′ in this second regionand/or its crystalline structure will differ from that of the bulk alloy12 in the first region 17. As a consequence of these differences, themorphology of the surface oxide layer 14′ in the second region 19 willdiffer from that morphology of the surface oxide layer 14 in the firstregion 17. As will be seen from the figure, the body of oxide 14′ in thesecond region 19 does not include any channels. However, while notmanifesting any discrete voids it may have threshold porosity. Also, thematerial 19 does not include any discrete catalytic sites, such as thesites 18 in the prior figures; although it may include some catalyticmaterial such as nickel dispersed therein. As discussed above,applicants believe that the differences in morphologies are attributableto differing behaviors of the two regions when they are exposed toactivating conditions. As discussed above, the highly channeledcatalytically active high surface area portions 17 can function asmacrocatalytic sites which enhance the properties, such as the lowtemperature properties, of the entire bulk alloy.

Yet other morphologies are possible within the scope of the presentinvention; and FIG. 3C is a schematic depiction of the morphology of analloy material of the present invention which includes four separateregions 13, 15, 17, and 19. In the FIG. 3C embodiment, the first region13 is formed upon a body of bulk alloy material 12 a and has a surfacemorphology generally similar to that of FIG. 1 insofar as it includes abody of bulk surface oxide material 14 a having catalytic sites 18, aspreviously described, formed therein. Adjacent thereto is a secondregion 15 formed upon a body of bulk alloy material 12 b, and thissecond region comprises a surface oxide 14 b which is generally similarto the surface oxide of FIG. 2 and in that regard includes a number ofrelatively small, elongated channels having a two-dimensional geometryformed therein, together with a number of catalytic sites 18 which, insome instances, may communicate with the channels 16 b.

The material of FIG. 3C includes a third region 17 formed upon a body ofbulk alloy material 12 c having a surface oxide layer 14 c formedthereupon and having a microstructure generally similar to that shown inFIG. 3A. The surface oxide layer 14 c of the third region 17 may, as inthe previous embodiments, also include some catalytic sites 18 in thebulk thereof. The material further includes a fourth region 19 formedupon a bulk alloy material 12 d and further includes a fourth body ofoxide material 14 d formed thereupon. The oxide layer of this region isof a configuration generally similar to that shown in FIG. 3B and doesnot include any discrete catalytic sites or pores therein.

As in the FIG. 3B embodiment, the bulk alloy material portions 12 a-12 dwill differ with regard to chemical composition and/or crystallinestructure and hence will operate to form different surface oxide layers.While FIG. 3C shows an alloy material of the present invention includingfour different adjacent regions disposed in a particular order, it is tobe understood that this structure is illustrative. Materials of thepresent invention may include a greater or lesser number of separateregions, and the ordering of those regions may likewise differ. It is asignificant feature of the present invention that it provides for thecapability of tailoring a material to include regions with verydifferent structures and properties which thereby allows for the overallproperty of the material to be tuned to achieve particular performancecharacteristics. For example, an alloy material of the present inventionmay be configured to include a number of sites which foster lowtemperature performance together with a number of sites which providefor a high discharge capacity and/or a number of sites which provide fora high density of power storage.

In some instances, principles of the present invention may also be usedto fabricate composites of a highly channeled, macrocatalytic alloymaterial dispersed in the bulk of a metal hydride material which may beof the same base composition as the highly channeled material or may beof a different composition. Such embodiments are also within the scopeof this invention. For example, the principles of the present inventionmay be employed to prepare a highly channeled body of an AB₂ metalhydride material which in turn is dispersed throughout the bulk of anAB_(x) material such as an AB₅ material or another AB₂ material.

Referring now to FIG. 4A, there is shown a schematic depiction of aparticle 24 of a highly channeled macrocatalytic material of the presentinvention which, as described with reference to FIG. 3A, includes a bulkportion 12 and an external surface 26 which includes the catalyticallyactive channels defined therein. As described herein, these channels canbe formed by treating the material with an etching agent such as analkaline material. FIG. 4B shows a particle 28 of a secondary material28 which comprises a bulk alloy portion 12 which may be of the same, ordifferent, composition as the bulk alloy portion of the material of FIG.4A. As described above, the bulk alloy portion 12 will have a surfacelayer 30, typically of an oxide material, in accord with the prior art.

The particles 24 and 28 of FIGS. 4A and 4B respectively may be thencombined to form a bulk material, the properties of which may becontrolled by controlling the relative proportions of the two particles.In this regard, highly catalytic materials having good low-temperatureperformance characteristics may be mixed with less active materialshaving good bulk storage capacity so as to optimize the low temperatureperformance and efficiency.

The particles may, in some instances, be simply mixed togetherphysically so as to provide the bulk material as is shown in FIG. 5A. Inother instances, the mixture may be at least partially sintered as shownin FIG. 5B. In yet other instances, mechanical alloying processes suchas ball milling, impact milling, attritor milling, and the like may beutilized to at least partially alloy the particles mechanically. In yetother instances, plasma spraying techniques may be employed to produce acomposite material as shown in FIG. 5C. In this regard, particles of afirst one of the materials may be plasma sprayed onto particles of thesecond one of the materials; or in a variation of the process, a plasmaspray of one material may be impacted with a plasma spray of another soas to produce a composite. In yet other instances, a process such aselectroplating or electroless plating may be employed to deposit a layerof the active material of the present invention atop a body ofconventional prior art material so as to at least partially coat thatbody and provide it with catalytically active surfaces. In yet anotherapproach as is shown in FIG. 5E, a composite may be prepared by meltingone of the components and dispersing the other therein. For example, ifthe conventional hydride material 28 has a melting point which is lowerthan the melting point of the material of the present invention, thatmaterial may be added to the molten body of conventional material so asto produce a composite.

While the foregoing description of the present invention was primarilydirected to battery systems, the fact that the methods described hereincan produce a catalytic material having very small sized catalytic sitesis of significance with regard to catalytic materials in general.Materials of the present invention may be regarded as catalyticcompositions comprising a matrix having a catalytic nickel material(such as elemental nickel or nickel alloys) supported thereupon. Asdescribed hereinabove, the catalytic nickel material is present in theform of particles having a size in the range of 1-15 angstroms, such asa size in the range of 7-12 angstroms, and in particular instances asize of <10 angstroms. Catalysts based upon such very small sizedparticles were not known in the prior art. Such catalysts of the presentinvention are very active and may be used in a variety ofelectrochemical and chemical processes; for example as hydrogenation orreduction catalysts.

The matrix material of such catalysts may comprise the nickel metalhydride alloy and/or the surface interface layer formed thereupon, andin that regard particles, such as particles 24 of FIG. 4A may be used ascatalysts. In other embodiments, the matrix material may comprise asecondary material such as carbon. In such instances, a nickel-site richmaterial of the present invention may be mixed in with a secondarymaterial to form a catalytic composition. In a specific instance ahydrogen storage alloy will be prepared to include the catalyticallyactive channels of the present invention, and this material will then bepulverized and mixed with the secondary matrix material. In othervariations of this process, a layer of a metal hydride material mayfirst be deposited onto a support, such as activated carbon, and thentreated to form catalytic channels.

In view of the teaching presented herein, yet other methods andtechniques for fabricating composites which incorporate materials of thepresent invention will be readily apparent to those of skill in the art.In any instance, activation of the material of the present invention toform the catalytically active channels may take place either before orafter they are incorporated into composites or catalysts with furthermaterials.

There are a number of modifier elements which may be used in thepractice of the present invention, and it is generally believed that themodifier elements operate to promote the formation of the catalyticchannels by fostering preferential corrosion of the oxide in a patterncorresponding to the channels. The most effective modifier elements willmanifest relatively high solubilities in the alkaline electrolyte of themetal hydride battery. The typical metal hydride battery electrolyte hasa pH of approximately 15, and a typical solubility of the oxidationproduct of a modifier element of the present invention in suchelectrolytes will be at least 1×10⁶ M. For example, such quantities forSiO₃ ²⁻, H₃V₂O₇ ⁻, HMoO⁴⁻, SnO₃ ⁻, and SbO₃ ⁻, are 9.1×10⁶, 1.3×10¹²,5.0×10¹¹, 2.0×10⁶, 1.7×10¹¹, respectively. It is further believed thathighly effective modifier elements also tend to produce monovalent ionsin solution. One particular modifier element having utility in thepresent invention comprises silicon. Some other modifier elements willinclude Mo, Y, Sn, and Sb. Choice of modifier element will depend atleast in part on the composition of the specific alloy being utilizedand/or the composition of the electrolyte. While some particularmodifier elements are discussed herein, yet other modifier elements willbe readily apparent to those of skill in the art in view of the teachingpresented herein regarding solubility properties and the operation ofthe modifiers.

Also, it is to be understood that the modifier elements may be usedsingly or in combination, and particular alloy materials may include oneor more modifier elements. Typically, the modifier elements are presentin relatively small amounts in the alloys. In particular instances, themodifier element or elements are present in amounts of at least 0.1atomic percent and will comprise no more than 10 atomic percent of thealloy material, and in some specific instances will comprise no morethan 5 atomic percent of the alloy.

While not wishing to be bound by speculation, it is believed that themodifier elements may substitute for one or more of the elements of thebasic AB_(x) alloy material and, in particular, for the B element of thealloy. For example, in nickel-based materials, it is believed thatmodifier element silicon, which has an electronegativity of 1.90, whichis similar to that of nickel (1.91), can substitute for nickel at the Bsite in the alloy. The metallic radius of silicon (1.669 angstroms) inalloys of this type is between that of Ti (1.614 angstroms) and Zr(1.771 angstroms), and much larger than those of common B-site elementssuch as Ni (1.377 angstroms), Co (1.385 angstroms), Cr (1.423angstroms), Mn (1.428 angstroms), and V (1.491 angstroms) which also mayallow it to substitute at the A site. Similar relationships will befound to hold for other particular modifier elements as detailed above,and one of skill in the art could readily select appropriate modifierelements for a particular alloy material.

Some typical alloys of the present invention include nickel togetherwith other materials including one or more of titanium, zirconium,vanadium, chromium, cobalt, and aluminum together with modifier elementswhich may include silicon, tin, molybdenum, yttrium, and antimony. Suchmaterials may comprise AB₂ alloys and may be single phase or multiphasealloys. Such alloys may also include AB₅ alloys as well as A₂B₇ alloys.

EXPERIMENTAL

A series of five AB₂ metal hydride alloys were prepared and evaluated inconnection with an experimental series illustrating the principles ofthe present invention. The alloys were of the basic type:Ti₁₂Zr_(21.5)V₁₀Cr_(7.5)Mn_(8.1)C_(8.0)Ni_(32.2-x)Si_(x)Sn_(0.3)Al_(0.4)wherein x is in the range of 0 to 4. In these alloys, the Si substitutesfor the Ni and in that regard occupies lattice sites otherwise occupiedby the Ni. The materials were prepared by an arc melting process as isknown in the art. Melting was performed under a continuous argon flowusing a non-consumable tungsten electrode and a water cooled coppertray. Before each run, a piece of sacrificial titanium underwent anumber of melt/cool cycles so as to reduce residual oxygen concentrationin the system. The chemical composition of the thus prepared alloysamples was determined using a Varian Liberty 100 inductively coupledplasma optical emission spectrometer (ICP-OES) in accord with principlesknown in the art. Microstructure of the alloys was studied utilizing aPhilips X'Pert Pro x-ray diffractometer and a JEOL-JSM6320F scanningelectron microscope with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS)capability. The gaseous phase hydrogen storage characteristics of eachsample were measured using a Suzuki-Shokan multi-channelpressure-concentration-temperature (PCT) system. In the PCT analysiseach sample was first activated by a 2 hour thermal cycle rangingbetween 300° C. and room temperature at 25 atm H₂ pressure. The PCTisotherms at 30° C. and 60° C. were then measured. AC impedancemeasurements were conducted using a Solartron 1250 frequency responseanalyzer with a sine wave of amplitude 10 mV and frequency range of 10MHz to 10 kHz. Prior to measurements the electrodes were subjected toone full charge/discharge cycle at a 0.1 C rate using a Solartron 1470cell test galvanostat, discharged to 80% state of charge and then cooledto −40° C.

Table 1 below provides compositional data for the five alloy samplesprepared in accord with the foregoing. The table lists the designcomposition as well as actual composition as measured by ICP.

TABLE 1 Design compositions (in bold) and ICP results in at. %. Ti Zr VCr Mn Co Ni Sn Al Si e/a B/A Si0 Design 12.0 21.5 10.0 7.5 8.1 8.0 32.20.3 0.4 0.0 6.82 1.99 ICP 12.0 21.5 10.0 7.5 8.1 8.0 32.2 0.4 0.3 0.06.82 1.99 Si1 Design 12.0 21.5 10.0 7.5 8.1 8.0 31.2 0.3 0.4 1.0 6.761.99 ICP 12.0 21.3 10.1 7.5 8.2 8.0 31.4 0.3 0.4 0.7 6.77 2.00 Si2Design 12.0 21.5 10.0 7.5 8.1 8.0 30.2 0.3 0.4 2.0 6.70 1.99 ICP 12.221.4 10 7.3 8.1 8.0 30.6 0.3 0.5 1.5 6.72 1.97 Si3 Design 12.0 21.5 10.07.5 8.1 8.0 29.2 0.3 0.4 3.0 6.64 1.99 ICP 12.3 21.4 10.1 7.2 8.1 8.029.8 0.3 0.5 2.0 6.66 1.96 Si4 Design 12.0 21.5 10.0 7.5 8.1 8.0 28.20.3 0.4 4.0 6.58 1.99 ICP 12.2 21.5 10.2 7.5 8.1 8.0 28.4 0.3 0.5 3.26.59 1.96

X-ray diffraction patterns for the five alloys are shown in FIG. 6. Allof the major peaks can be fitted into a hexagonal C14 (MgZn₂) structure.The peak at around 41.5° corresponds to a B2-structured TiNi secondaryphase which is a precursor of further solid-state transformation intoZr_(x)Ni_(y) secondary phases. As will be seen from FIG. 1, the TiNiphase is more prominent in the Si-containing alloys. The latticecontents of the C14 structure, a and c, calculated from the x-raydiffraction patterns are listed in Table 2 and are plotted in FIG. 7 asa function of silicon content.

TABLE 2 Lattice constants a and c, a/c ratio, C14 lattice volume, fullwidths at half maximum (in degree of 2) for (103) reflection peak, andcorresponding crystallite sizes from XRD analysis of alloys Si0 to Si4.C14 C15 TiNi Phase a, Å c, Å a/c V_(C14), Å³ FWHM(103) Crystallite Size,Å Abundance, % Abundance, % Abundance, % Si0 4.9667 8.0974 0.613 172.990.199 634 96.7 3.1 0.2 Si1 4.9695 8.1132 0.613 173.52 0.254 436 93.9 3.42.7 Si2 4.9708 8.1158 0.613 173.67 0.260 423 91.7 4.6 3.7 Si3 4.97068.1245 0.612 173.84 0.242 467 92.3 4.6 3.1 Si4 4.9729 8.1134 0.613173.76 0.233 494 92.0 5.0 3.0As the amount of silicon increases, both a and c increase due to thelarger atomic radius of Si compared to that of the substituted-for Ni,and this is an indication of the fact that Si occupies the B-site in thecrystalline structure of the alloy at least in part. However, it will benoted that the lattice constant c of the higher concentration Si4 alloydoes not follow this increasing trend. While not wishing to be bound byspeculation, Applicant concludes that as the Si content of the alloysincreases, some Si may start to occupy the A-site and reduce the latticesize of the alloy slightly. The C14 unit cell volume of each alloy wascalculated from the lattice constants and is also listed in Table 2 andplotted in FIG. 7. As will be noted from this data, as the Si content ofthe alloys varies, the a/c aspect ratio does not change; therefore, suchalloys will not demonstrate any adverse effects from the presence of Sion pulverization during cycling.

The crystallite size of each alloy was estimated by use of the Scherrerequation and is listed in Table 2. It will be noted that the crystallitesizes of the Si-containing alloys are similar to, and smaller than, thatof the Si-free alloy, and this may be due to an increase in the densityof the TiNi secondary phase. Table 2 also lists the phase abundances ofthe alloys. As will be seen, the addition of Si to the alloy formulationincreases the C15 phase abundance slightly. While both phases arecapable of storing large amounts of hydrogen, the one with the weakerhydrogen-metal bond strength (AB₂₋₁ with a relatively lower V contentand C15 structure) will act as a catalyst phase while the other will actas the main storage phase. These phases act in synergy during hydrogenabsorption/desorption as is reflected by the HRD performance of thesealloys.

The discharge capacity of each of the alloys was measured in aflooded-cell configuration against the partially pre-charged Ni(OH)₂positive electrode. No alkaline pretreatment was applied before thehalf-cell measurement. Each sample electrode was charged at a constantcurrent density of 50 mAg⁻¹ for 10 hours and then discharged at acurrent density of 50 mAg⁻¹ followed by two pulls at 12 and 4 mAg⁻¹. Itwas found that within three cycles all alloys reached stabilizedcapacities, and it was found that there is a boost in capacity when Siis added to the alloys at lower levels. Capacities eventually decreaseas silicon content increases. It is believed that the capacity boostresultant from incorporation of approximately 1 to 3 atomic percentsilicon in the alloys is a result of an increase in the surface area ofthe alloys upon activation, which makes the storage phase in the alloymore accessible by eliminating the funneling effect. The increase insurface area is believed to be a result of the fact that silicon and itsoxides have a greater solubility in the electrolyte than do the othercomponents of the alloy.

The temperature characteristics of the alloys were evaluated through theuse of AC impedance measurements conducted at −40° C. FIG. 8 is aCole-Cole plot showing the charge transfer resistance of alloy materialsas a function of additive content. In this plot, AB₅ materials areconsidered the benchmark. As will be seen, addition of a siliconadditive reduces charge transfer resistance by a factor of at least 5.FIG. 9 is a graph showing the double layer capacitance of the alloys asa function of additive content, and it will be seen that double layercapacitance increases by at least a factor of 3 as a result of siliconaddition; and as is understood, this increase is proportional to thereactive surface area of the alloy materials which, as discussed above,is believed to be a result of an increase in surface area attributableto the solubility of the silicon.

FIG. 10 is a graph depicting the product of charge transfer resistanceand double layer capacitance as a function of additive content, and assuch summarizes the data of FIGS. 8 and 9. As will be seen from FIG. 10,inclusion of the silicon additive increases the catalytic activity ofthe alloy with regard to electrochemical activity by a factor of morethan 20%. The increase in catalytic activity and/or the increase insurface area of the alloy as a result of the inclusion of the modifiergreatly enhances the performance of the alloy particularly atlow-temperature conditions.

The microstructure of the alloys of the present invention was alsoverified by Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), as is shown in FIGS.11 and 12. The analysis was carried out on silicon modified alloys ofthe type described above and showed that two different types of surfaceoxide were present. FIG. 11 is a TEM micrograph taken from the oxideregion between two TiNi secondary phase grains. FIG. 11 shows the threedimensional, interconnected structure of the channels, which are formedin the surface interface layer which is primarily based on oxides of Zrand Ti. FIG. 11 also clearly shows the Ni metallic nanoparticles liningthe channels. The other type of oxide can be seen from FIG. 12, which isa TEM micrograph taken on the surface of a TiNi phase. This figure showsthe surface oxide to be composed of metallic Ni inclusions (brightlattice image), voids (dark region), and oxide from other elements (greyregion). The Ni inclusions found here can be as small as 15-25 angstrom.

While the foregoing experimental series was directed to a particularfamily of alloys and to use of a particular modifier, namely silicon, itis to be understood that in view of the teaching presented herein, oneof skill in the art could readily select other modifier elements basedupon their solubility in electrolyte systems and their ability tosubstitute for components of a particular alloy system, so as to achievethe benefits of the present invention.

In view of the foregoing, it is to be understood that othermodifications and variations of the present invention may beimplemented. The foregoing drawings, discussion, and description areillustrative of some specific embodiments of the invention but are notmeant to be limitations upon the practice thereof. It is the followingclaims, including all equivalents, which define the scope of theinvention.

The invention claimed is:
 1. A catalyst powder, comprising: a supportmatrix characterized by the presence of metallic catalytic nickelparticles having an average particle size of 5-15 angstroms distributedtherethroughout, said matrix being formed from an AB₂ type hydrogenstorage material including Ni and a modifier element comprising Si,wherein said Si substitutes for a portion of said Ni at the B site insaid AB₂ type alloy.
 2. A catalyst powder as in claim 1, wherein theaverage particle size is 7-12 angstroms.
 3. A catalyst powder as inclaim 1, wherein the nickel particles are nickel alloys.
 4. A catalystpowder as in claim 1, wherein the proximity between adjacent particlesis about 300 angstroms.
 5. A catalyst powder as in claim 1, furthercomprising carbon.
 6. A catalyst powder as in claim 1, wherein saidcatalytic particles are graded within said support matrix, saidparticles being graded in at least one property selected from the groupconsisting of composition, concentration and size.
 7. A catalyst powderas in claim 1, wherein said catalytic particles are uniformlydistributed throughout the support matrix.
 8. A catalyst powder as inclaim 1, wherein said nickel particles lack platinum and palladium.
 9. Acatalyst powder as in claim 1, wherein said support matrix includes atleast one metal oxide.
 10. A catalyst powder as in claim 9, wherein saidmetal oxide comprises at least one element selected from the groupconsisting of Ni, Co, Mn, Ti, Zr, Fe, and the rare earth elements.
 11. Acatalyst powder as in claim 1, wherein said catalytic particles areformed by leaching at least a substantial portion of a bulk material,said bulk material including the leached elements.
 12. A catalyst powderas in claim 11, wherein said particles and said support matrix form atleast 50% of the volume of said catalyst powder.
 13. A catalyst powderas in claim 1, wherein said AB2 type alloy has the general formula:Ti₁₂Zr_(21.5)V₁₀Cr_(7.5)Mn_(8.1)Co₈Ni_(32.2-x)Si_(x)Sn_(0.3)Al_(0.4)wherein x has a value in the range of 1-4.